Author: Dr. Prince

  • What are the Social Determinants of Health

    This article covers a sample essay about What are the Social Determinants of Health. This essay outlines the effect of housing on health of the community. Improving the housing condition is primary prevention through upstream actions.

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    What are the Social Determinants of Health?

    Introduction

    The Social determinants of health (SDOH) are a group of factors that impact health and wellbeing of an individual. Child development is influenced by various aspects starting from birth, biology, genetic characteristics, gender, culture and family values.

    The Family provides adequate support systems by various means such as socioeconomic resources, ideal family environment and effective parenting skills. A community’s health and social development depends on healthy living and health services available to them (McMurray & Clendon, 2011). The health burden of disease and causes of major health inequalities arises from the environment in which an individual is born, raised, grown and worked. Theses factors are referred to as SDOH.

    SDOH consist of a number of structural conditions. The model representing cascade of bubble demonstrates how SDOH are interrelated to each other. It is observed that if there are any political or environmental changes, all structural determinants are affected (Wilcox, 2007 as cited in McMurray & Clendon, 2011).

    Primary health care (PHC) is aimed to create healthy communities. PHC approach is best described by multi-level health promotion model. Primary prevention is attained through upstream actions which are aimed to promote and maintain health. This is achieved through providing a healthy environment, health services and education for healthy living.

    Secondary prevention/midstream actions are providing treatment for illness and further prevention of disability. Tertiary or downstream actions are basically rehabilitation services or educating the community to cope with disability conditions (McMurray & Clendon, 2011). This essay outlines the effect of housing on health of the community. Improving the housing condition is primary prevention through upstream actions.

    To improve health and reduce inequalities, a coordinated approach is required to address SDOH which has direct effects on structural determinants. House designs should be made by taking into account health and well being. The infrastructure planning for housing designs which should include insulation, ventilation, sewage system, public spaces as well as community’s participation in their health development project should be encouraged.

    The health of an individual, families and the community can be improved by well designed, insulated houses and community health services. (WHO, 2011; Chapman & Bierre, 2008).

    The US Centres for Disease Control and Prevention also emphasised on approach to promote health by improving housing and living conditions. The visits to emergency and stay in hospital with serious acute medical illness is shorter with improved living conditions as opposed to those who lives in poor housing (Thomson, Thomas & Petticrew, 2009; Sadowski, Kee, VanderWeele & Buchanan, 2009).

    The research study has indicated that people migrated to better housing has improved health outcomes and are also exposed to less substance abuse, violence and less neighbourhood problems as compared to their original living conditions. Government generated social and health policies directly affect the quality of life and living conditions of the community, and also the economical status of the family significantly influence an individual’s health.

    A co-ordinated action is required from the Policy makers, health service providers and leaders from various sectors to utilise their knowledge to enhance better living conditions bringing the best population health outcomes (Williams, Costa, Odunlami & Mohammad, 2012).

    The importance of living and working conditions, indoor environment, safe neighbourhood, healthy lifestyles in general and respiratory health in particular is a major concern these days. The predominant factors increasing the risk of asthma and respiratory problems are moisture damage in the house and bacterial growth.

    The studies have shown a close association between mould, dampness and asthma in children. Damp houses resulting in mould and microbial growth are the predisposing factor resulting in wheezing in adults and infants. In a survey carried in NZ homes reported 35 % of moulds clearly visible in the living area or bedrooms. NZ has been reportedly having higher asthma rates in the world, which is contributed by poor living conditions.

    Damp and cold houses support the bacterial growth, providing favourable media for mould, bacteria and dust mites. Young children spend more time at home as compared to adults, There is a significant effect of damp houses on respiratory system, thus the incident rate of bronchitis and wheezing illness is more common in children. It is suggested, if people will be provided with better housing and insulation, respiratory symptoms will reduce by 33% (Keall, Crane, Baker, Wickens, Chapman & Cunningham, 2012).

    It has always been stated that population of health is largely impacted by quality of housing where they live. If people living in substandard housing or poor living conditions could be provided with better housing, insulation and ventilation, It could potentially prevent ill health. There was a cluster randomised trial for housing, insulation and health study of insulating houses of communities with low socioeconomic status.

    A Community based approach is effective mean of improving health rather than an individual focused e.g. Insulating houses are more effective than providing people with more clothes. Older aged, infants and children spend more time in houses, thus they have to bear the physiological stress due to their weaker immune system. This research also reports an association of cold, damp houses likely to get bacterial and mould growth, eventually causing respiratory problems.

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    Social Determinants of Health
    Social Determinants of Health

    Several international report highlight poor insulation, damp, cold and mouldy houses leading to poor health. People with insulated houses and better living conditions were less likely to be admitted to acute wards with pulmonary and obstructive airway diseases. The results interpreted in studies of the insulated housing affecting health were significant with improved outcome measures, except for the use of medical facilities.

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    How do social determinants of health contribute to the development of illness

    What social determinants create their vulnerable status?

    This study was conducted in uninsulated old houses with cold and dampness, where at least one member has respiratory problems, Increased warmth and decreased humidity brought improved health conditions. Population living in well designed and insulated houses reported significantly less cold and dampness however People in insulated houses also reported that their houses felt significantly less damp and mouldy, however this study does not determine essential determinants involved.

    Although this study greatly emphasise the effect of living in cold and damp houses resulting in pulmonary conditions such as asthma, cough and wheezing (Chapman et al., 2007).

    A study conducted by Kearns, Smith and Abbott on Pacific population showed substandard living conditions as compared to Maori and European population. Pacific people are at a great risk of developing asthma, cold and flu (as cited in Butler, Williams, Tukuuitonga & Peterson, 2003).

    Studies have reported a close relationship between cold, damp houses and respiratory diseases. Researchers also highlighted the association of poor housing with mental health and maternal health. Statistical analysis showed cold/damp houses a potential risk factor for asthma and postnatal depression. The pathophysiology of the respiratory symptoms is triggered by an allergic reaction to fungi or dust mites (Butler, Williams, Tukuuitonga & Peterson, 2003).

    A major British cohort study has reported an evidence of poor living/housing conditions are growing over the life, of course, and can impose serious health effects on an individual and family.

    Thus, interventions to improve housing could measure better effects. Providing insulation for houses for the community with low economic conditions is a cost effective intervention to promote health and well being. It should be widely accepted by the community for their own health, policy makers and leaders to make strategy for healthy measures (Chapman et al., 2007).

    Conclusion

    The health of the community is greatly influenced by SDOH more than medical care. As above stated, quality of life is significantly affected by the society and the environment in which they live and work. The burden of disease and ill health can be reduced by improving the housing environment. Medical care and accessing physician is not affordable to all, however better housing conditions can effectively reduce the financial burden on the health sector. Hence, the individual and the community should be encouraged to participate in health programmes for the promotion of their health and wellness.

    Reference List

    Butler, S., Williams, M., Tukuionga, C., & Paterson, J. (2003). Problems with damp housing among pacific families in New Zealand. The New Zealand Medical Journal, 116 (1177), 1-8. Retrieved from https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/2292/4653/12861308.pdf?sequence=1

    Chapman, P. H., & Bierre, S. (2008). Reducing health inequalities by improving housing. In Dew, K., & Matheson, A. (Eds.), Understanding health inequalities in Aotearoa New Zealand (pp. 161-173). Dunedin, New Zealand: Otago University Press.

    Chapman, P. H., Matheson, A., Crane, J., Viggers, H., Cunningham, M., Blakely, T.,…Davie, G. (2007). Effect of insulating existing houses on health inequality: cluster randomised study in the community. BioMedical Journal. doi: 10.1136/bmj.39070.573032.80

    Keall, M. D., Crane, J., Baker, M. G., Wicken, K., Chapman, P. H., & Cunningham (2012). A measure for quantifying the impact of housing quality on respiratory health: a cross sectional study. Environmental Health, 11 (33), 1-8. Retrieved from http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1476-069X-11-33.pdf

    McMurray, A., & Clendon, J. (2011). Community health and wellness: Primary health care in practice (4th ed.). Sydney, Australia: Elsevier.

    Sadowski, L, S., Kee, R. A., VanderWeele, T. J., & Buchanan, D. (2009). Effects of a housing and case management program on emergency department visits and hospitalizations among chronically ill homeless adults: A randomized trial. Journal of American Medical Association, 301 (17), 1771-1777. doi: 10011/jama.2009.561

    Thomson, H., Thomas, S., Sellstrom, E., Petticrew, M. 92009). The health impacts of housing improvement: A systematic review of intervention studies from 1887 to 2007. American Journal of Public Health, 99(3), 681-691. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2008.143909.

    Willimas, D. R., Costa, M. V., Odunlami, A. O. & Mohammed, S. A. (2008). Moving upstream: How interventions that address the social determinants of health can improve health and reduce disparities. Journal Public Health Manag Pract, 14, S8-17. doi: 10.1097/01.PHH.0000338382.36695.42

    World Health Organization. (2011). Closing the gap: Policy into practice on social determinants of health: discussion paper. Retrieved from https://extranet.who.int/iris/restricted/bitstream/10665/44731/1/9789241502405_eng.pdf

    Related FAQs

    1. What are social determinants of health (SDOH)?

    Conditions in the places where people live, learn, work, and play affect a wide range of health risks and outcomes. These conditions are known as social determinants of health (SDOH). are conditions in the places where people live, learn, work, and play that affect a wide range of health and quality-of life-risks and outcomes.

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    Social Determinants of Health
    Social Determinants of Health

    2. How does income affect social determinants of Health?

    Income can affect many aspects of health and in turn, have a knock-on effect on other social determinants. For example, a parent’s income may influence a child’s early development and educational opportunities, which in turn can affect a child’s employment opportunities and their income.

    3. What is the importance of social factors in our health?

    They influence the opportunities available to us to practice healthy behaviors, enhancing or limiting our ability to live healthy lives.

    4. Is there a social gradient in determinants of Health?

    There is a social gradient across many of these determinants that contribute to health with poorer individuals experiencing worse health outcomes than people who are better off.

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  • What is Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns Framework

    This article covers a sample nursing essay that discusses what Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns Framework is.

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    Disclaimer: This is a sample essay written by a student and not one of our professional nursing writers. It is meant to be used as just an example to other students.

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    What is Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns Framework

    Frameworks are used to accurately gage a patients health. They are a systematic way of collecting objective and subjective data to establish a plan of care for the patient. Health care professionals must continually observe the patient’s subjective and objective data in order to recognise any changes in the patient’s health so that they can act upon them to achieve the best possible outcome for the patient’s wellbeing.

    Gordon’s functional health patterns framework was developed by Marjorie Gordon. It provides a sequence of recurring behaviour from eleven different aspects (Luxford, 2012). These include; health perception and management pattern, nutritional-metabolic pattern, elimination pattern, activity-exercise pattern, sleep-rest pattern, cognitive-perceptual pattern, self-perception/self-concept pattern, role-relationship pattern, sexuality-reproductive pattern, coping/stress-tolerance pattern and value/belief pattern (Gordon, as cited in Luxford, 2012, pp. 225-226).

    The patient’s health is believed to be influenced by biological, developmental, cultural, social and spiritual factors. Because Gordon’s functional health patterns framework considers each of these factors, it will provide health care professionals utilising it with a comprehensive assessment of the patient’s health (Fulton & Baird, 2010).

    Dorothea Orem (as cited in Broadbent, 2012, pp. 47-48) developed a nursing framework based on three related concepts. self-care, self-care deficit and nursing systems. Self-care theory consists of four concepts. The first of these concepts are self-care, which refers to those activities the patient should perform without assistance that promotes wellbeing, for example, intake of air, food and water, elimination process, balance between activity and rest, balance between solitude and social interaction, hazard prevention and promotion of normality within social groups.

    The second concept is self-care agency, which refers to the patient’s ability to carry out self-care activities and whether or not they require assistance. The third concept is self-care requisites, which refers to the actions taken to provide self-care. Finally, therapeutic self-care demand, which refers to all the activities required to meet existing self-care requisites (Orem, as cited in Broadbent, 2012, pp. 47-48). Self-care deficit comes into play when self-care agency is not able to meet the self-care demand.

    This means that if the patient is unable to perform any activity of daily living they will not meet the requirements that are essential for them to survive, hence, a health care professional must assist them. The self-care deficit indicates that nursing is required to assist the patient and suggests five different nursing systems that can be used depending on the patient’s ability (Orem, as cited in Broadbent, 2012, pp. 47-48).

    Health care professionals should provide care that is considerate of and reactive to unique patient preferences, needs and values. They must ensure that patient values guide all clinical decisions (Krumholz, 2010). To successfully achieve this, when conducting a health assessment it is imperative that health care professionals make professional, ethical and legal considerations.

    Health care professionals must be mindful of the patient’s comfort and not assume that they are aware of what the health care professional is doing nor assume that the patient is consensual. Kerridge, Lowe & Stewart (2009) stipulate that upholding the patient’s right to autonomy is relevant to a health care professional legally, ethically and professionally. It means that before each procedure the health care professional must ask the patient if they consent to the having the procedure performed on them.

    The patient can give consent by verbal, written or implied communication. The patient’s right to autonomy must be respected at all times (Kerridge et al., 2009). It is the patient’s legal right to choose what happens to them, even if the patient refuses to have lifesaving medication or procedures performed on them that results in their further ill health or even death (Eburn, 2010).

    For both professional and ethical reasons health care professionals must adhere to a code of conduct at all times. Due to the patient’s probable vulnerability, health care professionals have a specific duty to conform to extremely high ethical standards both in their professional and private lives (Johnstone, 2012). Saunders (2012) explains that health care professionals must only perform duties that dwell within their scope of practice. If they do not adhere to this policy they would be failing to uphold ethical standards and also breaking the law.

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    Gordon's Functional Health Patterns Framework
    Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns Framework

    This could lead to the health care professional losing their job and or legal action being taken against them. In order for the health care professionals to maintain professionalism and uphold ethical and legal standards they must consider their scope of practice before performing any duties (Saunders, 2012).There are ethical considerations that health care professionals must be mindful of when documenting a patient’s information.

    For instance, to be conscious of who will be reading the notes, use official abbreviations and clear language, be specific, objective and protect privacy at all times. Breeching professional, ethical or legal responsibilities could lead to ramifications that are detrimental to the health care professional’s career, health care institution’s reputation and patient’s health (Jeffries, Johnson, Nicholls & Lad, 2012).

    Gordon’s functional health patterns framework is a common and excellent way to build a picture of the patient’s health (Newfield, Hinz, Scott-Tilley, Sridaromont & Maramba, 2007). It can be utilised for patients of all ages and in all areas of health speciality. Health is dynamic and ever changing and Gordon’s functional health patterns framework caters for this. Unlike other frameworks, Gordon’s uncovers patterns of both function and dysfunction (Gordon, as cited in Luxford, 2012).

    It considers the patient’s health from eleven specific aspects providing a broad range of information for health care providers to notice emerging patterns. The titles of the patterns are self-explanatory hence, they are easy to use (Newfield et al., 2007). These eleven categories provide a systematic and standardized approach to data collection and enable the health care professional to determine many aspects of health.

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    Though it has few weaknesses, like most other frameworks, the data collected for Gordon’s functional health patterns framework is based on much subjective data. This means that some data collected can be manipulated by the patient in order to depict an inaccurate assessment of the patient’s health. For this reason is must be used alongside the objective data such as the patient’s vital signs and physical examination in order to ensure an accurate health assessment.

    While Orem’s self-care framework appears to be a useful resource for health care professionals to use, Gordon’s functional health patterns framework proves to have strengths that far outweigh its weaknesses. One can understand why it is so commonly used within health care institutions.

    Related FAQs

    1. What is Gordon’s functional health patterns?

    The patient’s health is believed to be influenced by biological, developmental, cultural, social and spiritual factors. Because Gordon’s functional health patterns framework considers each of these factors, it will provide health care professionals utilising it with a comprehensive assessment of the patient’s health (Fulton & Baird, 2010).

    2. What is Gordon’s model of Health?

    Unlike other frameworks, Gordon’s uncovers patterns of both function and dysfunction (Gordon, as cited in Luxford, 2012). It considers the patient’s health from eleven specific aspects providing a broad range of information for health care providers to notice emerging patterns.

    As you continue, customnursingassignments.com has the top and most qualified writers to help with any of your assignments. All you need to do is place an order with us. (Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns Framework)

    Gordon's Functional Health Patterns Framework
    Gordon’s Functional Health Patterns Framework

    3. What is the functional health pattern assessment based on?

    The following Functional Health Pattern assessment is based on a 65 year old Scottish woman who lives independently with her husband in their home at Happy Valley. The purpose of the interview was explained in addition to an outline of the types of questions which would be asked during the interview.

    4. How many functional health patterns are covered by open ended questions?

    By the use of family focused open ended questions, 11 functional health patterns were covered. The health patterns were values and health perception, nutrition, sleep and rest, elimination, activities and exercise, cognitive, sensory-perception, self-perception, role relationship

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  • Pathology and Treatments of Streptococcal Pharyngitis

    This article covers a sample essay about the Pathology and Treatments of Streptococcal Pharyngitis. Streptococcal pharyngitis is the inflammation of the pharynx and presentation of white pus spots on the throat caused by the bacterium streptococcus pyogenes….

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    Disclaimer: This is a sample essay written by a student and not one of our professional nursing writers. It is meant to be used as just an example to other students.

    Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this essay are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of pro-essays.com. This essay should not be treated as an authoritative source of information when forming medical opinions as information may be inaccurate or out-of-date.

    Pathology and Treatments of Streptococcal Pharyngitis

    A: Causative Agent

    Streptococcal pharyngitis is the inflammation of the pharynx and presentation of white pus spots on the throat caused by the bacterium streptococcus pyogenes. Streptococcus pyogenes is a gram-positive cocci shaped bacterium that arranges in chains. Gram-positive cocci contain a thick peptidoglycan wall that encloses the inner plasma membrane and sits between the membrane and capsule.

    Unlike gram-negative bacteria, gram-positive bacteria do not contain more than one cell membrane. Streptococcus pyogenes are facultative anaerobes, which allows the bacteria to grow in anaerobic conditions. Facultative anaerobes are able to use oxygen when present to grow rapidly, which explains how S. pyogenes grows so effectively in the throat where oxygen is readily available.

    B: History

     The organism Streptococci was first founded in 1874 by Theodor Billroth. He discovered this organism through cases of wound infections and erysipelas. Louis Pasteur was the first to introduce this organism into history in 1879 through his discovery of isolating the microorganisms from the uterus and blood of women with puerperal fever.

    Friedrich Rosenbach received credit for naming the organism Streptococcus Pyogenes in 1884. One of the treatments called Penicillin was not established to be an effective treatment until 1940. In 1928 Alexander Fleming was the first person to be credited with the discovery of Penicillin through his founding of Penicillium fungus.

    However, Penicillin was not actually isolated to where it could be used as an effective treatment for diseases until 1939 by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain. Throughout decades this treatment continues to be the best option to treat streptococcal pharyngitis. With newer advances in technology led to more knowledge of the disease and the best treatment options to cure this disease.

    C: Epidemiology

     Streptococcal pharyngitis is prevalent worldwide. Although, there are more cases of strep throat found in low income regions. There are thousands of people worldwide who are currently infected with strep throat. Colder temperatures can tend to influence the outbreak of the disease.

    This is why strep throat is a very common disease to be infected with during this time of year. Based on the CDC there are 11,000 to 13,000 cases of streptococcal pharyngitis that arise every year in the United States alone (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2018). Each year 20-30% of strep throat cases are found in children and 5-15% of cases are found in adults (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2018).

    There are more than 18 million cases of streptococcal pharyngitis found worldwide each year (World Health Organization 2009). According to the CDC the mortality rate for strep throat is approximately 1,100 to 1,600 people die each year in the U.S. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 2018). Globally the mortality rate is approximately 500,000 people die each year (World Health Organization 2009).

    This disease is transmitted through direct contact with an infected person’s saliva or nasal fluids. These fluids are transmitted through airborne droplets by the infected person sneezing or coughing. It can also be transmitted by an infected person touching an item that will be touched by several people such as a doorknob.

    A person will then be able to pick up the disease by touching the doorknob and transmitting it to either there mouth, nose, or eyes. Strep throat tends to spread more rapidly in crowded areas such as schools, dorms, daycare centers, military training facilities, and workplaces. Humans are the main reservoir of the disease. Asymptomatic Group A Streptococcus carriers are another reservoir of this disease. Children are most commonly infected with the disease.

    D. Pathology

    Streptococcus pyogenes can affect multiple systems, although in the case of pharyngitis S. pyogenes invades the epithelial cells of the pharynx and tonsils causing inflammation. Due to the body fighting off the infection, the tonsils and surrounding lymph nodes become swollen and white pus spots appear on the tonsils, back of the throat, and tongue. The accumulation of pus in the throat can cause a foul-smell to patients’ breath signaling there is an infection.

    S. Pyogenes contains many virulence factors to aid in their invasion including: M proteins, exotoxins, hydrolytic enzymes, and a capsule around the cell wall. M proteins embedded in the cell wall aid the pathogen in adhering to host cells upon entry. Along with the M proteins, a hyaluronic capsule surrounds the microbe which also aids in adherence and prevents phagocytosis from the immune system.

    The capsule appears sticky causing incoming macrophages be unable to properly engulf the bacteria. The major cause of damage occurs from enzymes and exotoxins released from the pathogen. Streptococcus pyogenes releases an exotoxin that degrades surrounding tissue and causes an excess release of cytokines from surrounding T cells. This excess of cytokines, or a superantigen, causes an increase in inflammation around the infected area. Hydrolytic enzymes are another mechanism that S. pyogenes uses to damage host cells.

    These enzymes include C5a peptidase, streptolysin, and streptokinase. C5a peptidase is an enzyme that blocks the immune system’s complement cascade by cleaving C5 rendering it useless. Streptolysins O & S cause surrounding host cells and red blood cells to lyse and kill phagocytes. Lastly, the enzyme streptokinase is used to lyse blood clots which aid in the spread of bacteria to other tissue in the host.

    When a host is infected with streptococcus pyogenes, the host will not exhibit symptoms for 2-5 days while the pathogen incubates. After 2 or so days, the rapid onset of a sore throat, swollen lymph nodes, fever, and malaise will set in. Vomiting in young children is common, although not as common in adults.

    When showing signs of the infection, the patient should consult a doctor to start treatment and take proper precautions to prevent transmission to others. If the infection is treated, symptoms will resolve within 7-10 days. Although if left untreated, S. pyogenes can cause two major immune-mediated sequelae.

    A sequelae is a condition that presents after a previous disease has subsided. Streptococcal pharyngitis, if untreated, can lead to acute rheumatic fever and scarlet fever. Acute rheumatic fever appears within 2-4 weeks after the initial sore throat and is caused by a cross-reaction between the pathogen’s M proteins and the host’s heart muscle.

    This immunological cross-reaction causes the host to exhibit a fever, painful joints, and unregulated body movements. S. pyogenes’ other sequelae is scarlet fever. Scarlet fever occurs when streptococcus pyogenes has been infected with a phage. When a phage infects S. pyogenes, it begins to produce a erythrogenic toxin that causes a sandpaper-like rash to develop on the cheeks and chest along with a high fever.

    E. Response and Treatment

    The immune system takes action when fighting off strep throat. Inflammation of the throat and fever are key factors. CD4 T cells are directed against the M proteins of the streptococcus pyogenes bacteria. The body’s T cells secrete cytokines to guide that class switch recombination. Th17 cells protect against the GAS bacteria.

    IgG1 and IgG3 are responsible for the body’s humoral response and are developed over time, therefore adults are much less susceptible to this infection than children. Once exposed to the GAS bacteria, the body produces antibodies which have a protective capacity against infection. The B memory cells developed within the body help to fight of future infection of the same strain of bacteria. Vaccine development is currently focusing on antibody development more than the T cell immunity to encompass more the one strain.

    Treatment of the disease will shorten the duration of symptoms, reduce the chance of transmission between people in close contact, and prevent further complications. Clinicians should treat patients who test positive for streptococcus pyogenes (Strep Group A) through a throat culture test or rapid diagnostic throat test, in order to reduce the risk of serious sequelae.

    Penicillin is the first choice of treatment for the bacteria, however cephalexin and vancomycin can be used if the patient is allergic to the penicillin family. Both of these antibiotics are taken for a span of 10 days to completely eradicate the bacteria. The body could potentially fight off the infection without treatment, however antibiotic treatment is important to prevent possible life-threatening sequelae.

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             In order to prevent the spread of the infection, proper hygiene and respiratory etiquette should be practiced. Washing hands after coughing or sneezing and before handling food will help stop the spread of bacteria.  Respiratory etiquette means covering your nose or mouth when coughing or sneezing and not coming into close-contact with sick individuals.

    Normally, after twenty-four hours of antibiotic therapy, the individual is no longer at risk of transmitting the bacteria. They should stay at home for one entire day after starting the medication and until their fever is gone to further limit other’s exposure to possible illness.

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    Pathology and Treatments of Streptococcal Pharyngitis
    Pathology and Treatments of Streptococcal Pharyngitis

    Infectious Disease Fact Sheet

    Group Members: Kourtney Mathis, Savannah Ross, Hannah Stewart

    Name of DiseaseStreptococcal Pharyngitis
    Name of Causative AgentStreptococcus Pyogenes
    Type of MicrobeBacterium
       If Bacterial:
          Gram-reactionGram-positive
          Cell Shape/Arrangementcocci, chains
    Epidemiology
       Geographic PrevalenceWorldwide
       Average Rates of Infection11,000 to 13,000 cases each year in the U.S., 18 million cases worldwide, 20 – 30% in children, 5 – 15% in adults
       Reservoir(s)Humans (primarily children), (asymptomatic) Group A Streptococcus carriers
       Mode(s) of TransmissionRespiratory dropletsDirect contactNasal or saliva droplets from an infected person
    Pathology
       Major Virulence FactorsExotoxins (superantigens), M proteins, capsule, streptolysins O/S, streptokinase, hyaluronidase, C5a peptidase
       Major tissues/organs affectedEpithelial cells in pharynx, tonsils
       Major Signs/SymptomsPain, redness/inflammation of throat/lymph nodes, fever, vomiting in children
       Sequelae?Acute Rheumatic FeverScarlet Fever
       Latency?2-5 days
    Main Treatment Methods
       Pharmacological TreatmentsPenicillin, Vancomycin, Cephalexin
       Typical Length of Treatment7-10 days
       Prophylactic MeasuresAvoid direct contact with sick individualsProper hygiene/hand washing and respiratory etiquette

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    Works Cited

    • Mortensen, Rasmus, et al. “Adaptive Immunity against Streptococcus Pyogenes in Adults Involves Increased IFN-γ and IgG3 Responses Compared with Children.” The Journal of Immunology, American Association of Immunologists, 15 Aug. 2015, www.jimmunol.org/content/195/4/1657.
    • “Group A Streptococcal (GAS) Disease.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1 Nov. 2018, https://www.cdc.gov/groupastrep/diseases-hcp/strep-throat.html.
    • Costello, Anne Marie. “Group A Streptotoccus.” Austin Community College – Start Here. Get There., www.austincc.edu/microbio/2704y/gas.htm.
    • Efstratiou, Androulla. “Epidemiology of Streptococcus Pyogenes.” Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 3 Apr. 2017, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK343616/.
    • “Strep Throat.” Mayo Clinic, Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research, 28 Sept. 2018, www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/strep-throat/symptoms-causes/syc-20350338.
    • Ferretti, Joseph. “History of Streptococcal Research.” Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 10 Feb. 2016, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK333430/.

    Related FAQs

    1. What is Streptococcus pharyngitis?

    Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as strep throat, or Bacterial tonsillitis is an infection of the back of the throat including the tonsils caused by group A streptococcus (GAS). Common symptoms include fever, sore throat, red tonsils ( tonsilitis ), and enlarged lymph nodes in the neck.

    2. When did penicillin become an effective treatment for streptococcal pharyngitis?

    However, Penicillin was not actually isolated to where it could be used as an effective treatment for diseases until 1939 by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain. Throughout decades this treatment continues to be the best option to treat streptococcal pharyngitis.

    3. What are the treatment options for acute streptococcal pharyngitis in children?

    “Short-term late-generation antibiotics versus longer term penicillin for acute streptococcal pharyngitis in children”. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (8): CD004872. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004872.pub3.

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    Pathology and Treatments of Streptococcal Pharyngitis
    Pathology and Treatments of Streptococcal Pharyngitis

    4. What is the prognosis of untreated streptococcal pharyngitis?

    Untreated streptococcal pharyngitis usually resolves within a few days. Treatment with antibiotics shortens the duration of the acute illness by about 16 hours. The primary reason for treatment with antibiotics is to reduce the risk of complications such as rheumatic fever and retropharyngeal abscesses.

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  • What is Community in Community Health Nursing

    This article discusses What is Community in Community Health Nursing. A community may be defined in many different ways. Community care can also be defined differentially, maybe in relation to a fundamental philosophy, may in terms of imposed limitations and definitions of community delineation….

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    What is Community in Community Health Nursing

    Give a definition of what a community is – it is not solely geography, but includes factors of culture, ethnicity, age, etc. Consider principles of community care and critically discuss how a PHN in Ireland could ensure that care provided in her particular community is both inclusive and comprehensive.

    Introduction

    A community may be defined in many different ways. Community care can also be defined differentially, maybe in relation to a fundamental philosophy, may in terms of imposed limitations and definitions of community delineation.

    Discussion

    One definition of;community’ is “A social group of any size whose members reside in a specific locality, share government, and often have a common cultural and historical heritage” (http://www.sustainablemeasures.com/Training/Indicators/Cmmunty.html). This notion of community identifies the key elements of community in relation to healthcare that concern healthcare service providers and policy makers. Communities can be defined in terms of their location, but it is not enough to delineate communities in terms of specific areas, because communities are not simply collections of people who are in close proximity with each other by happenstance (Webb, 1986).

    Communities occur because of features which bring people together, often because of need, such as family support, or because of common interest, such as healthcare support groups. However, not all groups which share a common interest are communities (Trevilion, 1993). Location and purpose seem to be aspects of community, sharing not only common interest but common activities and common purposes, common concerns and common needs (Sines et al, 2005).

    Culture, ethnicity, age, gender, sexuality, all of these can be characteristics which define a community, but they could also be different elements of identities and needs within a particular community. For example, it is possible to talk of traveller community health, traveller women’s health, gay men’s health, and the like, and thus we are referring to communities which may exist within geographical communities, or despite geographical boundaries (McMurray, 2003).

    Within the United Kingdom, issues surrounding community health and wellbeing have concerned healthcare providers, particularly in defining distinct communities or sectors of communities, in order to identify health needs and develop and mobilise services in order to meet those needs (Lewis, 1999).

    However, these needs and the communities focused on have been traditionally limited to government-defined communities or definitions of who belongs to what community (Lewis, 1999). More recently, the re-orientation of UK healthcare services towards a more patient-centred model has led to the upsurge of service user involvement in design, development and evaluation of services (Pickar et al, 2002; Simpson et al, 2006; Tait and Lester, 2005; Telford and Faulkner, 2004; Humphreys, 2005).

    Related Content: Community Health Nursing

    This could be viewed as a means of breaking down the traditional hierarchical barriers between ‘the community’ or communities being served by healthcare providers, and the providers themselves (Telford and Faulkner, 2004). Addressing community needs can be informal, local, or national and formal, and seems to form part of governance strategies in the UK and Ireland (DoHC, 2001).

    Such strategies also now seem to focus not only on the service user information role, through gathering feedback and through service user involvement (Poulton, 1997), but also the need for greater collaboration, within and between healthcare and community/ social care/ voluntary sector agencies (Cumberledge, 1986; Fisher et al, 1999). These are all very good ideals, but in order to make user involvement and collaborative approaches work, information needs to be applied to practice, and practice needs to be changed for the better. This requires staff at some level to enforce these changes.

    It might be that the Public Health Nursing role within the Irish community healthcare context could be viewed as one of the loci for the enforcement of community-oriented healthcare provision. However, more information is needed on how this ‘enforcement’ of change could be achieved through this role. For example, collaborative care planning, needs assessment and care provision has existed for decades (see for example, Webb, 1986), but this kind of joined up working is still not a reality of practice, with failings in communication and challenges of interprofessional working still dogging the footsteps of primary healthcare providers (Poulton and West, 1999).

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    What is Community in Community Health Nursing
    What is Community in Community Health Nursing

    If healthcare providers cannot work well with each other, they set a poor example for joined up working with community-focused or community-derived groups, as well as individuals who identify themselves as belonging to certain communities.

    Community services within the Irish context cover both health services –primary, secondary and tertiary – and social care services, all of which are supposed to meet the needs of the individual and the community. However, provision and suitability of services can vary by location. Because of the diverse nature of communities, it might be difficult to provide services which meet all community needs in any given location.

    This would suggest a need for flexibility of care provision, and again underlines the need for good inter-professional, inter-disciplinary, and inter-agency working. Public Health Nurses are accustomed to working with multiple professions and agencies, but there is a need to re-evaluate concepts of diversity in relation to the communities which occur within their sphere of practice.

    Conclusion

    Community is a term which encompasses many aspects of social life. Healthcare services which have a community focus would have to be very flexible, adaptable, and even creative, because of the increasingly diverse nature of communities. This diversity emerges not only from social changes, some of which are driven by economic, media and technological changes, but also by new understandings of communities and their inherent components, differences and similarities. Community focused models of service design and provision are those which would involve service users in design, planning, governance and evaluation of services, but such involvement must be representative of the increasing diversity of the communities concerned.

    Related Content: Community Health Improvement Plan Sample

    Public health nurses are in a good position to access and support all sectors of the community within the Irish context, and to support service users to provide input into all levels of health and social care provision, even into healthcare professional education. However, understanding communities is an ongoing issue and services must be designed to reflect the true needs of each community. As such, they must be responsive rather than prescriptive.

    References

    Cumberlege, J. (1986) Collaboration. London: Centre for Advancement of Interprofessional Education

    Department of Health and Children (2001) Primary Care: a New Direction. Available from: http://www.dohc.ie/publications/pdf/primcare.pdf?direct=1 Accessed 10-11-08.

    Fisher, B., Neve, H. & Zoe, H. (1999) “Community development, user involvement and primary health care: community development has much to offer primary care groups.” British Medical Journal 318 (7186) 749-750.

    Humphreys, C. (2005) Service user involvement in social work education: a case example. Social Work Education 24 (7) 797-803.

    Lewis, J. (1999) The concepts of community care and primary care in the UK: the 1960s to the 1990s Health and Social Care in the Community 7 (5) 333-341.

    McMurray, A. (2003) Community Health and Wellness – A Sociological Approach. 2nd Ed. Elsevier, Australia

    Pickar, S., Marshall, M., Rogers, A. et al (2002) “User involvement in clinical governance.” Health Expectations 5 187-198.

    Poulton, B.C. (1997) Consumer feedback and determining satisfaction with services. IN: Mason, C. (ed) Achieving Quality in Community Health Care Nursing London: Macmillan Press.

    Poulton, B. and West, M. (1999) The Determinants of Effectiveness in Primary Health Care Teams. Journal of Interprofessional Care, 13:1

    Simpson, E.L, Barkham, M, Gilbody, S. and House, A. (2006) Involving service users as researchers for the evaluation of adult statutory mental health services. The Cochrane Library 3

    Sines, D., Appleby, F. and Frost, M. (2005) Community Health Care Nursing 3rd Ed. Bath: Blackwell Publishing.

    Tait, L. & Lester, H. (2005) “Encouraging user involvement in mental health services.” Advances in Psychiatric Treatement 11 168-175.

    Telford, R. and Faulkner, A. (2004) Learning about service user involvement in mental health research. Journal of Mental Health 13 (6) 549-559.

    Trevillion, S. (1993) Care in the Community – a Networking Approach to Community Partnership. London: Longman

    Van Teijlingen, E.R., Hundley, V., Rennie, A.M. et al (2003) Maternity satisfaction studies and their limitations, Birth 30 (2) 75-82.

    Webb, A. (1986) Collaboration in Planning a pre-requisite of Community Care. In Webb, A. and Sistow, G. Eds. Planning Needs and Scarcity. Essays on Personal Social Services. London: Allen and Unwin

    Related FAQs

    1. What is the difference between a community health nurse and public health?

    Community health (CH) nurses provide health services, preventive care, intervention and health education to communities or populations. In the past, public health nurses worked for the government or the public health department. Their role has since expanded.

    2. How do I become a community health nurse?

    When compared with some registered nursing roles, becoming a community health nurse typically requires some additional training and educational experience. A community health nurse needs to have a strong background in nursing as well as an understanding of social science and public policy.

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    What is Community in Community Health Nursing
    What is Community in Community Health Nursing

    3. What is community diversity in public health nursing?

    Public Health Nurses are accustomed to working with multiple professions and agencies, but there is a need to re-evaluate concepts of diversity in relation to the communities which occur within their sphere of practice. Community is a term which encompasses many aspects of social life.

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  • Metaparadigm of Nursing Concept of Care

    This article discusses Metaparadigm of Nursing Concept of Care. Caring is a core element in nursing even yet it remains elusive to the entire nursing metaparadigm. All nurses as required by their profession must be caring. For it is through caring that nursing derives its uniqueness and contributes significantly to health care…

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    Metaparadigm of Nursing Concept of Care

    Caring is a core element in nursing even yet it remains elusive to the entire nursing metaparadigm. All nurses as required by their profession must be caring. For it is through caring that nursing derives its uniqueness and contributes significantly to health care (Thorne, Canam, Dahinten, Hall, Henderson, and Kirkham, 2002).

    This is not only the patient as an individual but the family and community as well. Further as the nursing profession continues to take on some of the roles of physicians, it is important to differentiate the profession from that of physicians. Caring seems an obvious component of nursing yet does not feature in the nursing metaparadigm for a number of possible reasons.

    First, there is a possibility that caring was perceived to be synonymous to nursing. It is true there is little understanding and agreement on what the term refers to. Again, a focus on caring was perceived to delimit the nursing territory (Thorne, Canam, Dahinten, Hall, Henderson, and Kirkham, 2002).

    The variability of care makes scientific inquiry almost impossible. It is indeed true that medicinal treatment alone can guarantee healing. This however, becomes tricky with the aged, frail people and those suffering from chronic diseases. These groups of persons need care.

    According research and experiences recorded by nurses; once patients are well taken good care of, it helps boosts their chances of recovery. This is because sickness, even when traced from traditional societies, was perceived to interact with environment, family, community, spirit and the individual persons. The better an individual feels the greater are his or her chances to respond positively to treatment.

    This good feeling can be provided by the nurse who establishes confidence, a bond and trust with the patient. Caring is therefore an important concept that needs to feature in the nursing metaparadigm. Without this concept nurses may not be well able to execute some of their duties successfully.

    Concepts and Metaparadigms

    Concept refers to terms that define phenomena occurring either in thought or nature (McEwen and Willis, 2006). Concepts normally contain some attributes which help to distinguish them. Since the formulation of concepts employs the use of words, concepts can be broadly be categorized as either concrete or abstract.

    The former can be perceived by the common senses and include concepts such as universe, passion, ground, which are symbolic and a representation of phenomena. On the other hand abstract concepts include love, anger, passion etc. All these terms are particular to an entity and for that matter descriptive in nature.

    Concepts can be formulated using a single word, two words or a phrase (McEwen and Willis, 2006). Examples of single word concepts include death, fear, anxiety etc. The concepts with two words can take the form of mutual agreement, self-fulfillment etc.

    There are concepts which take the form of a phrase such as user-friendly services, environmental conscious behavior, poor service delivery etc. There are many concepts in different disciplines which help to differentiate one from the other. For the reason purpose of systematic study of nature, it is important to come up with concepts that are clear (Duncan, Cloutier and Bailey, 2007).

    This becomes a stepping stone that gives researchers and scholars a grasp of reality. It also makes the study of phenomena easier. Also in order to communicate meaning clearly to readers there is need for scholars to avoid ambiguity. This means that every time a term is used in a particular context, scholars must endeavor to define it to ensure proper interpretation.

    On the other hand metaparadigms define a discipline and set the boundaries with other disciplines. It gives the discipline a global perspective which is useful for the practitioners of the discipline to observe phenomena within their parameter (Van Wyk, 2005). In most cases it comprises a range of major concepts which act as its defining elements.

    These concepts within a metaparadigm act as limitations or boundaries of the discipline. Again, metaparadigm not only defines a discipline but also outlines its concerns. For instance in nursing metaparadigm we have four concepts which include environment, person, nursing and health.

    These concepts in general help to define nursing metaparadigm and set it apart from other disciplines or professions for that matter. A clear line is therefore able to be drawn between nursing and physician practice. This is possible because of the different metaparadigms.

    Evidence to Support Position

    Historically there are four concepts in the nursing metaparadigm which have been used to describe the context and content of the nursing profession. As much as the four concepts; health, environment, person and nursing continue to be embraced in the nursing fraternity, they have been a number of challenges and proposals being experienced and given as alternatives (Schim, Benkert, Bell, Walker and Danford, 2007).

    The nursing metaparadigm however, continues to be recognized by all professions in the field. Apart from the four components the concept of caring continues to be a contentious issue. For a long period caring has been ignored since it could not be subjected to scientific inquiry, measured and its impact determined (Thorne, Canam, Dahinten, Hall, Henderson, and Kirkham, 2002).

    In many instances the ability to cure by use of scientific means through medicinal treatments alone renders the role of caring obsolete. This however, does not apply to those who are weak, aged and suffering from chronic diseases (Castledine, 2009). These ones have to be cared for in order to boost their recovery process.

    Even with the many perceptions and definitions there seem to be an agreement on the components of care. The major focuses of these components are the physical, emotional and psychosocial requirements of the patients (Castledine, 2009). The patient needs to be cared for and in this case the staff is concerned primarily with giving care and little attention is given to end results. For this reason there is need to understand care in a far more refined manner compared to the traditional view of the same (Van Wyk, 2005).

    It is important for the care givers to be compassionate with those receiving care. The level of concern with the health of patients makes nurses not only to experience whatever the patient is going through but give hope and assurances or recovery. The nurse can also offer assistance in areas where the patients is unable to perform. There are also specific conditions and situations which call for care from the nurses. These problems may be social or medical. Most importantly care much aim at the preservation of a patient’s dignity (Castledine, 2009).

    According to research carried out to examine how students perceive stories shared by nurses, researchers found out the views of four students which centered on the care as developing of trust (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). The stories told by nurses tended to encourage as well as make one student gain confidence to undertake similar experiences.

    This student in particular went into mimicking the behavior of the nurse such as the use of non-verbal communication thus leading to desirable results. In this way it became apparent to the student that through experimenting with some of the ways demonstrated and practiced by nurses, one could actually make a bond with patients. There is much excitement and one is encouraged to go and try it out with the patients.

    The view of another student tended to perceive a great percentage of caring resulting from being open to patients and at the same time listening attentively to what they say (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). This student emphasized the need to concentrate on the patient while withholding ones judgment. In this way the student perceived caring as being manifested in a number of ways but most importantly it was channeled towards trust and establishing a bond with the patient (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009).

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    Metaparadigm of Nursing Concept of Care
    Metaparadigm of Nursing Concept of Care

    Similarly, the same student craved for a mentor who would be instrumental to help her gain confidence, learn to care and see to an improvement of her nursing practice (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009). It is true that the care shown to patients makes them feel good about themselves. The nurse should therefore endeavor to improve these skills in order to be successful in executing duty.

    Related Content: Concept of nursing metaparadigm

    Moreover, it is important for nurses to exhibit confidence, communicate effectively, respect and be available always to attend to a patient’s needs. This is a tall order which requires the nurse to be comfortable in a number of situations (Rayman, Ellison, Holmes, 1999). The only way to achieve this is through experience and to allow exposure to a number of situations.

    These experiences are gained from a number of places. Similarly, it was noted by the student that caring involves being able to stay current on nursing practices, ability to prioritize and doing what is right (Adamski, Parsons and Hooper, 2009).

    The concept of caring comprise of various attributes. These attitudes are essential to nursing as a whole. They include attitude, action, variability, relationship and action (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). Nursing as a profession pays much attention to relationship between nurse and patient.

    This relationship is initiated by the former with the intention of taking action. It is a relationship that calls for cooperation and respect from both parties. The patients require such a relationship for assistance as most of them are not able to care for themselves. In some cases the relationship has been perceived to be a form of friendship as there is concern and affection for one another (Rayman, Ellison and Holmes, 1999).

    The nurse being the initiator and most active in the relationship is a companion in the client’s journey towards recovery. In order for this relationship to be fulfilling there must be intimacy, trust and responsibility. The nurse has the responsibility to develop a trusting relationship which comes with patience, openness, love and sincerity. Proximity to the patient is vital and important for the development of intimacy and trust.

    Since the nurse is in a professional relationship with the patient then all responsibilities are at facing to that direction. The person who is receiving care must be assured of well- being through responsible actions shown by the nurse. Professional care givers therefore need to act in the most current and knowledgeable manner towards their clients (Khademian and Vizeshfar, 2008). In this mission there are guided by professional ethical codes. For instance their conduct must be of high standard and also their decision making must be guided by principles of practice.

    In conceptual analysis of care there must be action exhibited by the nurse towards the patient. This is not only performing some activities for the patient but also ensuring one’s presence at all times. The care giver sees the need of an individual and more than wiling to respond to these needs in a professional manner (Khademian and Vizeshfar, 2008). It is important for instance for the nurse to be interested in the patient as a human being worthy of respect and dignity.

    It is from her that the nurse will start to exhibit care for the patient. The most obvious of this kind of care is physical. In this case some actions that would make patients feel good about themselves. These actions may include a rub on the back, assisting the patients in and out of bed, chair, dressing and undressing etc.

    In some cases the nurses will have to assist female patients to do their hair and even apply make-up (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). All these ensure that the patients feel good about themselves. They feel their live has not simply stalled due to sickness but someone is more than willing to see them recover and carry on with the day to day life.

    A caring nurse must also exhibit a caring touch. As much as the action might seem small, its significance is great. It is a form of non-verbal communication important to establish rapport between the two and changes the perceptions of the patient towards the nurse. Actions such as holding hands, gently stroking the hair are some of the actions that cement the relationship between the nurse and the patient.

    The physical presence of the nurse is important just like emotional presence. The nurse must not only shares time and space with patients but also listens actively (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). There is need to be a part of the family and share their fears, hopes and aspirations. It is important at this time for the family and the patient to be assured that they are not alone.

    A nurse may seat by the bedside of the patient telling stories and contributing to whatever the family have to offer. It is simply the feeling of togetherness and appearing like one family. This is a holistic and genuine engagement of the two parties that helps build on trust and confidence.

    Caring as a concept varies in different circumstances, people involved and the environment at large (Daniels, 2004). Variability in care is therefore another way to describe the changing nature and fluidity of caring. For this reason the more a nurse practices care giving to patients the more experience gained. It is therefore expected of the nurse to offer care corresponding to environment and nature of the patient. There is need to understand that patients are different and need assorted care and attention.

    Importance to Nursing

    The introduction of the concept of care in nursing metaparadigm will help reduce emotional labor that always accompanies giving of care among nurses. In the work place nurses normally have emotional regulation which is likely to lead to emotional exhaustion or burn out (Huynh, Alderson and Thompson, 2008).

    In any organization and in nursing profession in particular it is vital that workers be able to feel their emotions and be aware of the personal costs associated with the services they give to patients. It is important to note that emotional exhaustion of the nurses can come as a result of a number of factors including depersonalization of the patient.

    As an attribute to care, variability must be taken into consideration such that patients are treated as individuals (Brilowski and Wendler, 2005). This cannot be easily achieved if the nurse has not been oriented on some of the principles of care. His or her individuality must be taken into account.

    Caring gives nursing its uniqueness hence the reason for nurses to be directly involved in care giving. In the modern health care however, the role of care giving is remotely executed by the nurse. For instance it is common for support staff to aid in care giving while under the supervision of a nurse (Clifford, 1995).

    In this case the role of the nurse is reduced to that of a supervisor and therefore contact with the patient is reduced. The all important link between the nurse and the patient is cut. This makes treatment to be a long and complicated experience for both the nurse and the patient.

    In defining nursing as a formalized manner of giving care then it becomes easy for the nurses to respond to the needs of patients with compassion. There will be little or no pressure at all for the nurses to fulfill demands that are farfetched from nursing. Their activities as care givers will be guided by the need to respond to health care. The available resources will therefore dictate the activities of the nurses (Clifford, 1995).

    Through the experience gained in caring for the patients, nurses feel empowered and become mush tolerant of uncertainty. Since an individual is able to connect with the patients, it becomes easy to respond to their needs (Daniels, 2004). In addition the satisfaction gained through work is increased as the nurse becomes energized and passionate about work. It is for the same reason that the nurse is able to empathize with the patient.

    The nurse is close to the patient and attends to all demands being made, it quickens the recovery progress. The patient is not ashamed to communicate and share deep feelings. On the other hand the nurses are well able to experience the illnesses thus increase their understanding. In this way it becomes easier to attend to similar cases in future.

    Care education is also essential in nursing profession more so preparing nurses for care in their profession. As much as the theory of care differs greatly from the life experiences in the field; still the need to get the education is vital. Once the students have gotten the knowledge in school it will help change their attitude and more importantly give them a clue of what to expect in their work.

    This knowledge is essential for preparation and also in laying down a framework for the nurses such that they are aware from the onset what is entailed in their profession (Clifford, 1995). In addition the knowledge is important for the sake of contemporary practices in health care and gives insight to the future of nursing.

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    Metaparadigm of Nursing Concept of Care
    Metaparadigm of Nursing Concept of Care

    For a long time nursing as a profession has been misunderstood and portrayed negatively. The inclusion of caring in nursing metaparadigm is important in the creation of a good public image for the nurses and the profession. Once the public has a good image upon a profession it helps boost recruitment and also change the nurses’ attitudes towards work (Takase, Maude and Manias, 2006). The nurses will also improve on their self-image which largely contributes to performance in the job.

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    Conclusion

    There is still much debate on whether or not the concept of caring should be included in the nursing metaparadigm. In the nursing profession this concept continues to be controversial. The reason for this controversy is the fact that nurses continue to give care despite the concept being ignored.

    This may appear simply as an ignored concept but in reality it has been and remains part and parcel of the nursing profession. In fact there are those who have equated nursing as a whole to caring. In this case caring seems to have been a metaparadigm of nursing alongside health, person, and environment.

    In the modern health care, nurses have delegated the role of care to subordinate staff while maintaining the role of supervisors. As much as the nurse is still in control, there is lack of attachment with the patient.

    The public opinion of nursing is far from impressive as most of the people are ill informed about the profession. The majority tend to think nursing to be synonymous to caring. The nurse is perceived as a subordinate to the physician, receives instructions from the doctors, earns less salary etc.

    All these are stereotypes most of which emerge from the tradition role of the nurse as a care giver. This caring is understood casually with little understanding of the profession. It is for the same reason that people feel they know quite well the role of the nurses. For this matter they are ready to judge on the delivery of services. It is important for the nurse to be respected, seen to be compassionate, concerned and competent.

    The importance of caring is not only confined to the nurses but the family and the patient as well. Most importantly however, is the fact that caring will help increase the rate of healing and health thus lighten the work of the nurses. It is significant to all involved in the entire process of healing as it reduces anxiety and fear for both the family and patients. In this way it helps to empower the patient, give comfort, hope, security and self-esteem.

    Eventually, nurses are able to enjoy their work. This is as a result of the nurse being perceived differently by the patient thus boosting morale. Caring should therefore be incorporated in the nursing metaparadigm since it will be a major boost to the profession. The nurses will feel good about their profession as they are trained, gained experience and able to develop a relationship with patients.

    Related FAQs

    1. What are the 4 concepts of the nursing metaparadigm?

    Concepts of the Nursing Metaparadigms There are four concepts that determine nursing practice: environment, health, person, and nursing. The nursing metaparadigms are made up of these concepts. Environment, health, and person phenomena are focused on a patient (Dupree, 2017).

    2. Why is caring important in the nursing metaparadigm?

    The better an individual feels the greater are his or her chances to respond positively to treatment. This good feeling can be provided by the nurse who establishes confidence, a bond and trust with the patient. Caring is therefore an important concept that needs to feature in the nursing metaparadigm.

    3. What are the four concepts that determine Nursing Practice?

    There are four concepts that determine nursing practice: environment, health, person, and nursing. The nursing metaparadigms are made up of these concepts. Environment, health, and person phenomena are focused on a patient (Dupree, 2017). On the other hand, the nursing concept relates to a nurse.

    4. What is the concept of care in nursing?

    Concept of Care and the Nursing Metaparadigm. The care giver sees the need of an individual and more than wiling to respond to these needs in a professional manner (Khademian and Vizeshfar, 2008). It is important for instance for the nurse to be interested in the patient as a human being worthy of respect and dignity.

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